Urban Taxi Slogans: The People's Arts

The contemporary African city runs on informal modes of public transportation. Typically, minibuses provide the core, but motorbikes, tricycles, and shared taxis all contribute to transport ecosystems. These privately operated services are ground-level responses growing demand for mobility in face absent or inadequate formal transportation services. For many urbanites, it is impossible imagine life without its ubiquitous minibuses, which constitute a distinctive feature urban environments stuff news, gossip, rumors, myths. Far from being mere containers that form part mise en scène cities, dilapidated yet decorated bodies these minibus mirror urbanites duplicity city: both as place filled with hope joie de vivre redoubt stuckedness immiseration. Minibus account an estimated 80% Africa's total motorized trips (Medium 2018), contributing 50% traffic some corridors (Kumar Barrett 2008: 5). They go by various appellations: danfo1 Lagos (Fig. 1), trotro Accra, daladala Dar es Salaam, poda-poda Freetown, matatu Nairobi, otobis Cairo, car rapides Dakar, condongueiros Luanda, gbaka Abidjan, kamuny Kampala, magbana Conakry, sotrama Bamako, songa kidogo Kigali, kombi Cape Town. Minibuses supplemented motorcycle taxis, popularly known okada Nigeria, oleiya Togo, zémidjan Benin, pikipiki Kenya, boda-boda Uganda. This complex expresses, shapes, produces, refracts political, social, economic relations.Informal indicates alternate mode flexible passenger cater poor Global South. Unlike modern mass transit systems fixed stops, fares, routes, timetables, have no predictable schedule: “they depart when they reached maximum capacity arrive successfully passed through checkpoints, paid necessary fees bribes, parts broken down during journey” (Green-Simms 2009: 31). failure state-owned occasioned growth popularity local ostensibly unregulated In Lagos, Nigeria's commercial capital most populous city, okadas emerged 1980s popular means hard-pressed subalterns time massive crisis population growth, increased widened gap between supply (Agbiboa 2022a).In state government aims phase out use iconic danfos. Former governor Akinwunmi Ambode (2015–2019) lamented that, “When I wake up morning see yellow buses … then we claim megacity, not true must acknowledge faulty connectivity running. Having accepted look solution why want banish buses” (NCR 2017). Ambode's comment reproduces perceptions sector chaotic embarrassment needs be “modernized.” favored substitutes light rail project (also monorail)— contracted China Railway Construction Company—and BRT (bus rapid transit) system,2 generally deemed more befitting modernizing megacity world-class ambitions.This language modernity combines aesthetic governing, what Asher Ghertner (2011) calls “aesthetic governmentality,” (re)produce pathological assessments megalopolis, pathology ne plus ultra. fabric perfunctorily read planning black hole, insoluble problem. Johannesburg, instance, nothing “crime city.” similar vein, rich complexity reduced detritus, disease, death, reproducing colonial imaginary “dirty natives” (Newell 2020) “impending apocalypse” (Sommers 2010: 319). dystopian bland reading emboldens leaky notion cities quite cites, having failed meet monolithic standard (Western) (Ferguson 1999; Myers 2011). While now feel know nearly everything not, still remarkably little about actually (Mbembe 2001: 9; also Föster 2013).Focusing coastal 18 million (more than Greater London New York combined) (by 2100, home 90 inhabitants), this essay interrogates artistic slogans painted exterior danfos unique window into interior, workaday world their operators—marginal men struggling survive under shadow system. My central argument only reflect how operators see, experience, socially navigate endemic life; themselves ingenious ways sustain sense agency disempowering circumstances. so doing, my aim show there narrative dysfunction criminality, gain better understanding studying apparently system automobility like danfo.This paper builds upon new approaches urbanism interrogate lively archive expression vision Nuttall 2008; Quayson 2014; Green-Simms Specifically, answers call defamiliarize commonsense thinking engaging “new critical pedagogies—pedagogies writing, talking, seeing, walking, telling, hearing, drawing, making—each pairs subject object novel enliven relationship them express motion” 2004: 352). should alongside Damola Osinulu's “Painters, Blacksmiths, Wordsmiths: Building Molues Lagos,” published Arts (2008), invites us explore Lagosians translate day-to-day challenges arts. incisive analysis focused now-banned molues (single-decker 8 11 meters long), uses danfo veritable aesthetics order chaos, “ordered chaos,” mark simultaneously familiar strange, moving moored. goal advance our limited knowledge neglected vital linkages texts, persons, publics Africa beyond.The French sociologist Henri Lefebvre argued wherever place, time, energy interact, rhythm invariably present. And every “relation space, localized if one prefers, temporalized space” (Lefebvre 15). triumvirate time-space-energy has ultimate reference point human body, nonhuman vessels routinely move those (e.g., danfos). Inspired Lefebvre's conceptual approach “rhythmanalysis” 23)—a method analyzing spaces effects rhythms dwelling motion—I sought fieldwork capture manifold, overlapping manifest sense-world, especially tell liminal space “dream world” “catastrophe” (Buck-Moss 2002); other words, disconnect contradiction elite-driven utopian aspirations make “world-class” really existing context precarity violence weave existence. Wisdom Sits Places, Keith Basso (1996) tells senses intertwined cultures, things, individuals whole communities impose meaning social importance places. examines harness vehicle objects archives wisdom negotiate visible invisible constraints mobility.With digital camera-cum-sound recorder, was able hypervisuality soundscape zig-zags along potholed roads, trying avoid piles debris compete pedestrians rights way. Here, leads excess. There phalanx kind perpetuum mobile. raw percussive sound Fuji3 blaring danfos, revealing confluences music, mobility, spatiality. syncopated cries piya wata itinerant vendors, handing half-liter sachets cold water windows vehicles stuck jams4 (or go-slow, say Lagos) keenly outstretched arms within. rag-tag conductors sonorously calling respective termini, jostling passengers, warning passengers “wole pelu shenji e o” (enter exact fare). (okada) drivers weaving regard life.5 Like drivers, occupy Gbemisola Animasawun (2017) “struggle economy” Lagos—a economy characterized disposability. And, finally, agberos—the dreaded tax collectors National Union Road Transport Workers (NURTW) (see Agbiboa 2018)— racing after off-loading picking at bus stop roundabouts, shouting “owoo da?” (“where money?”). NURTW—the politicized violent trade union Nigeria (Albert 2007)—employs agberos extort unreceipted cash bribes (egunje) operators. Agberos typically “youthmen” ages 20 50 can easily recognized gruff voices, bloodshot eyes, sometimes missing teeth (lost street brawling). list collect endless borders farcical, ranging loading (owoo loading) “money party” faji). If operator fails comply, his sideview may smashed windshield wipers fuel tank cover removed. Sometimes conductor mauled full view complicit police officers.All constitutes aspect, environment, culture itself 147). enfold socioeconomic exchanges ritual Eko Ile (“Lagos, home”), turning real semiotic.From 2014 2015, conducted year-long Oshodi Alimosho areas state. flows best imagined “a living stage where collage scenes acted played script” (Aradeon 1997: 51). collected 312 eclectic mobile stationary open, texts (logos prophorikos) were analyzed terms veiled endiathetos). change hands several times lifecycle, keen own slogans—i.e., personal identity—on newly acquired vehicles. interpretive informed in-depth interviews passengers. As omo eko (child Lagos), tapped longstanding embodied experiences quotidian enrich data content analysis. Some cryptic looking “inner eyes” (oju inu—which implies physical metaphysical episteme) driver/owner apprehend Yuri Lotman (1988) “the text within text.” avoided one-sidedness textual interpretation (Jaworski Thurlow 1). Interviews Yoruba, English, Nigerian Pidgin, common languages Lagos.Occasionally, unable interview because photographed Nonetheless, virtue semantic variability, arts never entirely owner's control: “The says knows; generates ‘surplus’: meanings beyond subvert purported intention work” (Barber 1987: 3). Taking cue Yoruba philosopher Olabiyi Yai's art (visual verbal) ashe force) “unfinished generative” (1994: 107), derived slogan's essential character (iwa) insights offered who often commented slogans, joked them, expressed (dis)likes over another. import such worldviews ably emphasized Barber (1987: 8): ordinary people ‘false consciousness’ (a concept problems) consciousness: people's represent do fact think, believe aspire to” (my emphasis).Danfos fashioned Mercedes 911, Bedford, Volkswagen chassis engines preowned (tokunbos) imported Europe, around steel frame constructed. Depending model, designed seat anywhere twelve sixteen people. Constructing outer body very much process “hybridization” that—much them—”reflect constant absorption ideas outside long-standing adaptive processes Africans always been innovative players forums” (Roberts 2020; Osinulu 49).Danfos notorious squealing breaks, bald tires, rattling exhaust pipes emitting thick, smoke. Most lost padding placed ceiling insulate heat. Their permanently sealed off, creating stuffy atmosphere inside. practice overloading long trademark Nobel Prize winner Wole Soyinka describes “transportation torture four wheels,” simply dangerous roads plies. He “humans crushed against another market produce, sheep, livestock suffocated stench rotting food anonymous farts” (quoted 2022b: 99).The conform them. Rickety tend driven older (over 30 years old) bear “E Still Dey Go” (“It's going [strong]”), “Slow Steady,” “No Shaking,” “Tested Trusted,” “Experience Best Teacher,” “All That Glitters Is Gold.” Conversely, newer younger (under years) “Lagos Las Vegas,” “Star Boy” 2), “Fresh Boy No Pimples,” “Obama,” “Land Cruiser.”The meeting points daily conversations corruption, road delays, dysfunctional services, moribund infrastructure, occult economies, marginal gains 2020, 2022b; cf. Guyer 2004; Comaroff 1999). Danfo crowded together, sardines cans (“full loading,” Lagos). A squeeze back will ask seating cheek-by-jowl hard wooden seats “abeg dress small,” “please little.” At driver slows halts, leaving judge jump off/on. jostle enter/exit slow motion, pickpockets seize opportunity steal valuables.Danfo abstract discursive felt entities (Morgan 228). exude powers enchantment symbolization comes think existence “not purely politico-instrumental way, gesture open action meditation contemplation” 2002: 629; Meyer 105), even resistance. By way illustration, State Traffic Law 2012 stipulates “Except prescribed Motor Vehicle Administration Agency Signage Advert Agency, stickers, painting, photos etc. prohibited” (Lagos Government 2012). implication, stylistic rise flourishing unstable shifting sphere resist confinement assigned (Meyer 92, 95). light, then, signal dominant “representational economy”6 (Keane 2002) clearly underscored assertion power dialectics presence.Like paratransit prominently economies South (Mutongi 2006: 550). India's Delhi, slogan rickshaw (tuk tuk) reads: Girlfriend Tension. Hi Tension” reflects among young Delhi relationships women complicated, stressful, avoided. Given intense visuality cityscape, surprising studies overlook ocular, tactile, emotional materiality (Clammer 2014: 66).Danfo translocal nature. terminals across fiercely Tupac's Eyes Me” Obama's “Yes We Can” Bob Marley's “Africa Unite.” Slogans wide range sentiments: operator's gratitude family member provided payment (i.e., “Ola Egbon”—”brother's generosity,” Fig. 4); relate idol Nelson Mandela); remind (“Thank You Jesus. Have Said It Today?” 2); supplication God “Oh God! Do Not Be Silent!”; “Alubarika” [“blessing”]; Loss, Lack, Limitation,” Figs. 5–7); indicate loyalty soccer club “You'll Never Walk Alone” “Red Devils”); convey message/warning enemies “Shut Up!” “Let Them Say” (Figs. 8–9); celebrate yearning money (“Owo-Lewa”: beauty,” “ododo lowo”: desirable,” 10–11); business (“Punctuality Soul Business,” philosophy “Life Na Jeje”: “life easy,” 5, Lele”: “stay vigilant,” 2).In shape moods choices commuters basis, involving “operations productive imaginations” 159). During described me influence decisions enter each day. woman recounted: ‘Relax: Control,’ ‘Fear God’ [Fig. 12], good entering trusts God's powers, abilities.” Structure-wise, short pithy “One Day” Love” 13–14) draw religious “Blessed Above,” 15), slang “Chop Liver”—to courage), proverbs “Ise loogun ise”; “work cures poverty”). saying “Owe lesin oro” (“The proverb horse speech”) relevant here. Through histories, hopes, fears, philosophies users. Yet, blur lines fiction. despite driving lethal (one two hours), controvert truth—i.e., Cause Alarm,” “Be Afraid,” “Just Relax.” reassuring some, aspect everyday deception Lagos. Perhaps, tongue-in-cheek was, “Police Your Friend” 16). rest article, focus “deep” slogans—which heart paper—as navigation Lagos.City negotiation forces. Now ever before, argues Danny Hoffman, “what cannot clearly, determines one's fortunes” (2011: 959). Nowhere evident bottlenecked governed paradigm danger. widespread distrust suspicion increasingly protection 310) situations “predictably unpredictable” (Peteet 2017: 96).Whenever double entendre aiye/aye (worldly life)—in contradistinction orun (the hereafter, heaven)—is danfo, usually recognition insecurity radical uncertainty life, particularly underworld mysterious forces cause misfortune route. Aiye/aye superior agent respected supplicated “Aiye Mojuba,” “I respect world,” 17) lest destiny wickedly altered. Ogun” (“life war”) conveys driver's struggle in/visible progress. “aye lo'ja” (“the marketplace,” 18), sees (aiye/aye) marketplace, journey (ajo) eternal heaven/the spirit (orun ni'le). According Lawuyi 190), experiential, reflexive nature day transformation organized forms, transactional exchanges, strong beliefs. To alive experience ups downs journey.” repetitive/replicative unclosed possibility reclaim positive orientation near future” (Guyer 2017), steeped worldview. subjects, once temporal eternal. notes, “Hope endures promise is, indeed, eternity, lies recurrence ‘springs’ any confident comprehension horizon” (2017: 152).The habitus fear drivers/owners hardly consider ownership symbolizes wealth status, giving envy. course owners fears struck sorcery orchestrated awon ota/aiye (in/visible progress). Which fortify protective amulets—a dry animal skin twisted rope tied rearview mirror—to ward off evil attract One study taxi found Muslims 60% Christians had charms (Lawuyi 1988: 4). reinforce “local reality become ‘knowledge hidden’ spiritual worlds life” (De Boeck, Cassiman, Van Wolputte 36).Other wield talisman, reinforcing belief words possess ashe, force. conveyed “Wibe Jebe” (“Say it, shall come pass”) Limitation” 7). “Back Sender” expresses prayer bad wish towards backfires wisher. Others, “Sea Dry,” primary source livelihood, leaves road. Implicit Weapon Fashioned Against Me,” “Do Prophet Harm,” “Heaven's Gate,” Presence God” 22), “Angels Guard,” “Any Attempt!” “Iwo Dan Wo” (“You try”), warning—a “Last Warning” 23)—of power. message ota clear: taking on, you himself (Olodumare—”the owner creation” pantheon), whose unrivaled. implied like, King “Jesus Lord” (alongside crucifix), “Oba ju oba lo” (“kings greater kings”) “Oga oga” (“boss bosses”) 24–26).While remains city's signs modernity, embodies contradictions trappings modernity: “its inescapable enticements, self-consuming passions, discriminatory tactics, devastating costs” (Comaroff 1993: xxix). writers graphically highways ogre “swallows people” (Okri 1992) “National Slaughter” (Soyinka 1977). Data Bureau Statistics Federal Safety Corps suggest year, 20,000 11,654 involved accidents. Between January 2013 June 2018, staggering 28,195 lives equivalent 415 per month, 14 persons (Vanguard 2018). With 33.7 deaths 100,000 second 193 United Nations countries World Health Organization report (Blueprint 2014).A large portion accidents occurs roads—roads (and ply them) age-old “long coffin holds 1,400 corpses.” Potholes numerous, leading swerve putting users risk. reporter compared scale caused Boko Haram, Islamist group northeast Nigeria. adduces case Lagos-Badagry expressway, past seven death trap, accounting “over 10,000 potholes valleys big enough consume car” (Osun Defender Taxis plying damaged, making spend lot hard-earned repairs. victims perpetrators normally hire licenses brazenly flout rules. “You wonder secured roadworthiness certificates first place,” inspection officer told me. “And ban find returning them.”Due propensity accidents, refer “flying coffins.” trader “Many traps, since can't afford high choice What else do?” Ironically, announce potential fate: “Carrying Me Home,” “Pray Hope,” “See Heaven,” “Home Sweet “Orun Ile” (“Heaven, Home”), “Free Last,” “Remember Thy Creator.” Ur Six Feet” 25) rear he chose behind him vigilant” demonic spirits blood. “Six feet” euphemism dying cemetery workers dig gravesites depth six feet (1.83 meters).The poor/impassable condition mirrors oppressive wretched conditions labor. economy, income, days protection. 1958, Everett Hughes used phrase describe occupations labor perceived degrading. term well Despite lengthy workdays averaging twenty hours “24 Hours Road,” puts it—Fig. 4), take meager incomes due extortion law enforcement agencies officials LASTMA [Lagos Management Authority]), exacting demands owners, extortionate mafia-like roam stops junctions, collecting onerous impunity. “This work just income,” said driver. “What get today today, tomorrow start again scratch.” After witnessing firsthand set ablaze protest seizure bribe-demanding officials, lamented:Drivers remit specific target income day; according bring in. responsible overhead costs, including fines violently imposed partners crime, traffic/mobile police. such, immense pressure financial targets replaced: crowd unemployed youth ready lear